2020 Mar 25;68(12):3722-3728. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00658. Steel slag is a major industrial waste in steel industries, and its dissolution behavior in water needs to be characterized in the larger context of its potential use as an agent for sequestering CO 2. In this case, some plants require special equipment installation. Alkali-activator is used to stimulate its hydration reactivity. Poor steel slag stability, Process characteristics and process: Pour the hot molten slag into the slag pot and transport it to the side of the slag tray. High viscosity is perhaps the most obvious factor in the stabilization of BOF-converter foams, and it retards the rate of drainage in the films of the bubbles. Almost from 600-700C half of steel strength reduced. The overall purpose of this lab was to develop a lab procedure in order to separate and measure the mass of each containment obtained the provided sample. Due to this property, this type of cement can be used where the problem of thermal cracking is foreseen. The processing of steel slags for metals recovery is not only important to remove excess steel at the market source for reuse at the steel plant, but is also important to facilitate the use of the nonmetallic steel slag as construction aggregate. This problem can be solved to some extent using anti-corrosion applications. Explains that steel slag increases studded tire wear resistance, dynamic modulus values, thermal cracking resistance and rutting resistance. The slag processor must also be aware of the general aggregate requirements of the end user. Professional engineers provide solutions and technical drawings. Uneven particle size (>9.5mm up to 29%)[/vc_column_text][/vc_column][/vc_row]. Disadvantages of Blast-Furnace Slag Cement The reaction products are oxides, which are finally incorporated into the slag. One particle of coal can form more than one bubble. Steelmaking slag added into ladle slags makes it possible to minimize slag line wear. The open hearth furnace process is no longer used. FOIA - Blast-furnace slagThe nonmetallic product, consisting essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium and of other bases, that is developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace. Blast furnace slag is obtained at 13001400C; viscosity is around 0.41.0poise; the chemical composition mainly includes FeO, CaO, MgO, SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, S, and C; the alkalinity (CaO/SiO2) is 1.2; and the alkalinity [(CaO+MgO)/SiO2] is around 1.5. Process characterization and the role of inorganic components in the formation of humic-like substances. There are multiple components that make an alka-seltzer dissolve. Based on the slag chemical composition, the binary basicity index (IB2) and ternary basicity index (IB3) are calculated to predict foamability of the slags applying ISD (see Table 3). 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In order to overcome the disadvantages of slow setting and low early strength of SCM four different alkali activators were added . The content of sulfates or sulfides is also controlled to avoid SO2 emissions causing air pollution. Please provide design data for special processing requirements. In general, bubble number in the slag foam is greater than the number of coal particles. P.O. This requires extra cost and special care. In addition, this experiment was conducted in order to provide the EPA with a plan to remove all contaminants from a heterogenous mixture which purifies the water, making it accessible for the society. Noureldin, A. S., and R. S. McDaniel. There are several different types of steel slag produced during the steel-making process. The relative proportions of these compounds depend on the steel-making practice and the steel slag cooling rate. Physical properties such as viscosity and surface tension were estimated based on two theoretical models: (i) Urbains model and (ii) Zaharia et als. 38800 Country Club Dr. Contact our London head office or media team here. As the initial setting time is high, this cement is not used for emergency or repair works. If a converter is used in the steel-making process, with water being sprayed on the slag for cooling purpose, the slag generated is termed a converter slag. Nowadays, it is possible to consider the slag as a possible raw material for ceramics, road buildup, or cement production. Also steel isnt renewable while wood is but wood requires more maintenance due to the different ways it is attacked. The use of steel slag as an aggregate is considered a standard practice in many jurisdictions, with applications that include its use in granular base, embankments, engineered fill, highway shoulders, and hot mix asphalt pavement. Second Floor, Office #207 Careers. Experimental measurements have difficulties associated with the high temperature needed (or the high melting point of some slags). Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too. 5 Princes Gate Court, Steel slag: a waste industrial by-product as an alternative sustainable green building material in construction applications--an attempt for solid waste management This investigation explores the possibility of utilizing granular slag as an alternative to fine aggregate (natural sand) in construction applications like masonry and plastering. The heat retention characteristics of steel slag aggregates can be advantageous in hot mix asphalt repair work in cold weather. Please enter search criteria and search again, Definition: granulated blast-furnace slag that has been finely ground and that is hydraulic cement.-. Senani et al. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal The weight average molecular weight of a HA when slag was added initially (29 kDa) was significantly higher than when slag was added after elevating the temperature of the compost pile (17-18 kDa). (5). Safe disposal of slag and elimination of atmospheric pollution by waste gases are now a matter of serious concern in all steel producing countries. Natural graphite, on the other hand, produces excellent slag volumes but slow reduction of iron oxide. . As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. Also, a good adherence behavior on MgO-C samples was obtained by means of dipping tests. Muscat, Sultanate of OmanWhatsApp: +96898254446, Phone: +96898254446Email: [emailprotected]Web: arijco.com, Penetration Grade Bitumen | Viscosity Grade (VG) Bitumen | Performance Grade (PG) Bitumen | Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB) | Bitumen Emulsion | Oxidized Bitumen | Cutback Bitumen. Keywords: Date:7/1/2022, Publication:Concrete International To begin the lab, first all the correct equipment and materials had to be collected. This forces us to look for alternative uses to minimize the impact on the environment. The use of blast furnace slag as artificial rocks is also possible because they are similar to semi-hard stones. A lot of research has focused on the reuse of blast furnace slag to make building materials. After that, the Erlenmeyer flask was filled with 100 mL of distilled water. Steel is more costly than e.g. The mentioned uses include an exhaustive control of the content of Ba, Cd, Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn, in order to avoid contamination or air pollution. FHWA/OH-94/004, Prepared for the Ohio Department of Transportation, November, 1993. This chapter is focused on the chemical composition, structural characteristics, thermal and physical properties, and behavior (at high temperature) of different slags used to protect refractories in BOF and EAF as recycling possibilities. Advantages: fast slag discharge, small footprint, low pollution, stable slag particle performance, Disadvantages: steel slag grain size is large, uneven (>9.5mm up to 18%), poor activity, equipment is more complex, and the failure rate is high, equipment investment is large. Lais Lorena Queiroz Moreira, Leonardo Theodoro Bll and It contains a mixture of sand, cement, crushed rock, pebbles, and water. Different types of carbonaceous particles were identified in all the samples (Figure 7). Wood can suffer from fungal attack; it also decays, and suffers from insect attacks while steel mainly suffers from corrosion. Its based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As it was already mentioned, viscosity is considerably affected by FeO content. In the first part the density of water was measured by hydrometer. Steel slag is a byproduct of iron and steel production by the metallurgical industries. A great part of the steel produced in the world is obtained through electric arc furnace (EAF), the process involves the use of scrap metal and reduces the CO2 emissions. . This is how the bubbles are made. All these factors lead to/foster the achievement of a good slag layer on the surface of MgO-C bricks. Slag foaming constitutes another alternative to use the converter slags to protect MgO-C bricks below the trunnion line [8, 10]. Once cooled, the ABS is crushed and sieved according to the geometric characteristics required by the application. Through this process I am refined further to remove any other impurities because I must be at least 99% pure lead. Date:8/1/2022, Publication:Special Publication Qi G, Yue D, Fukushima M, Fukuchi S, Nie Y. Bioresour Technol. In conventional EAF steelmaking, natural gas is generally used as a supplementary energy source. Next, The flame test required the solution made during the solubility test. It is not good for the environment and energy saving. . After being tapped from the furnace, the molten steel is transferred in a ladle for further refining to remove additional impurities still contained within the steel. Environ Int. ASTM Special Technical Publication 774, American Society for Testing and Materials, Washington, DC, 1982. however, ssa has little effect on top-down fatigue and moisture susceptibility of the sample mixes. Use a crane to evenly pour the slag in the pot into the slag tray. Developed countries are now laying tremendous emphasis on: (a) reduction in energy consumption per ton of steel produced and (b) sustainable environmental management. It is important to take into account that in order to enhance the performance of this industrial practice, it is necessary to understand deeply the associated fundamental phenomena. Greater persistence and reduced penetrance due to fineness. was characterized by different experimental tests. Phone: +971.4.516.3208 & 3209, ACI Resource Center and a binary index (BI) 2.88, present the highest viscosities. Hence, there is a critical FeO content below which foaming increases and above which the foam is less stable. Tufa precipitates have been reported to clog drainage paths in pavement systems.(5). Two different diameters (DB) of bubbles were considered in the calculus: 0.015 m and 0.005 m. The results obtained are also detailed in Table 3. The injection of oxygen and carbonaceous materials in industrial EAF furnaces creates highly dynamic and nonsteady state conditions. During slag foaming, when carbon is injected into the slags, gas bubbles are formed around the carbonaceous particles. Invalid Email Address. Comparison of viscosity values of slags for groups A, B, C, D, and E with different FeO content. Page Owner: Office of Research, Development, and Technology, Office of Safety, RDT, TRT Terms: Waste products as road materials--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Pavements, Asphalt concrete--Design and construction--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Pavements, Concrete--Design and construction--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Pavements--Additives--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Fills (Earthwork)--Design and construction--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Roads--Base courses--Design and construction--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Wastes, Environmental impacts, Recycling, Coordinating, Developing, and Delivering Highway Transportation Innovations, Sodium Sulfate Soundness Loss (ASTM C88), %, Hardness (measured by Moh's scale of mineral hardness)*, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), % top size 19 mm (3/4 inch)**. When sodium bicarbonate dissolves in water it splits apart into sodium and bicarbonate ions. It has good persistence towards sulfate and chloride assault and even less risk ofalkali-silica response with aggregates. Steel is an alloy of iron. In addition, the assumptions of a sulphur-oxygen equilibrium between steel and slag and the dilute solution model for the liquid steel phase were utilized in the calculations. Arcelormittal, TATA Steel, EZZ steel etc. Foaming was generally found to improve as surface tension decreases, increasing slag viscosity and suspension of second-phase particles. The worlds largest tubular mold (2201250) was poured successfully! Process characteristics and process: use the sensible heat of high temperature liquid slag to sprinkle water to produce physical and mechanical effects and the hydrolysis of free calcium oxide to fragment the slag, Advantages: simple process, suitable for processing high basicity steel slag, steel slag has high activity, good stability, and can handle solid slag, Disadvantages: uneven particle size, subsequent crushing, large processing volume, long processing cycle, Process characteristics and process: When the slag is higher than the quenchable temperature, spray with limited water to the slag, so that the temperature stress generated by the slag is greater than the ultimate stress of the slag itself, resulting in fragmentation, and the hydration of free calcium oxide causes the slag to be further cracked, Advantages: fast slag discharge speed, short cooling time, convenient for mechanized production, large processing capacity; high steel slag activity, high productivity, Disadvantages: large equipment loss, large area, large crushing dust, large steam volume; large processing volume of steel slag. Different expressions have been proposed for foaming index . Email Address is required Would you like email updates of new search results? All contents of this website are copyrighted by LMM GROUP and may not be reproduced in any form without permission. Because ladle slag is a premelted flux, when it is recycled in the steelmaking process, it is easy to be remelted. . It is important to mention that during the last year, large thermodynamic databases of multicomponent oxide systems have been developed, and parameters have been optimized in order to reproduce all reliable experimental data within experimental errors. Experimental tests of physical properties as viscosity and surface tension of multicomponent systems at high temperatures (higher than 1500C) are difficult to carry out due to the complexity of the process and the amount of time involved. The ladle slag recycling also represents an important alternative to reduce steelmaking cost, decreasing the consumption of fluorspar and lime (among others metallurgical applications), and get ecofriendly benefits. Furthermore, the ash content of materials C1 and C2 allows predicting rapid gas generation, which is not favorable for foam stability. Steel slag, a by-product of steel making, is produced during the separation of the molten steel from impurities in steel-making furnaces. Steel slag aggregates generally exhibit a propensity to expand. Figure 18-1. However, for civil applications, exhaustive controls are carried out in order to determine contents of Ba, Cd, Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn, in order to avoid soil contamination. Pit slag and clean out slag are other types of slag commonly found in steel-making operations. The site is secure. Up to 18 months may be needed to hydrate the expansive oxides. Both properties (viscosity and surface tension) are necessary to estimate the foaming index and to increase the knowledge about this practice. Tufa is a white, powdery precipitate that consists primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). CO for foaming is also produced by decarburization of the metal given by Eq. The temperature was recorded. Viscosity values estimated by the Urbain model and FactSage 7.2 at 1600C for the slag were FSage=0.29 poise/Urbain=0.90 poise. The results are in agreement with Pretorious [18], who suggests low or medium values of surface tension in the slag for good foaming behavior. Transient foams last for a few seconds, while stable foams have prolonged shelf life [12]. The lab consisted of two parts. A lance is lowered into the converter and high-pressure oxygen is injected. I am put into a kettle at 330C eventually causing me to rise to the top. At 1600C, the average of the contact angle measured was average=33. Sulfur content is similar in all samples. Typical physical properties of steel slag. The type of carbonaceous material added affects the foaming practice. Dubai, UAE The size of the bubbles determines the foam behavior. The use of slag in concrete has several benefits, including reduced energy, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and reduced use of raw materials. The principles underneath this movement bring new requirements with an emphasis on the rational use of material and energy resources by controlled minimization of total emissions produced. Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) cement is the combination of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and fine Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) gained as a byproduct in the steel making manufacturer with below 70% to that of cement. These steel refining processes give rise to another type of slag, called "Ladle Furnace Slag" (or "LFS"), in a range of approximately 30-80 kg per tonne of refined steel. Phone: 1.248.848.3800 Surface tension consists in a physical property that depends principally on the surface and not on the bulk. This also requires the addition of increased levels of lime and dolime (flux) for the removal of impurities from the steel and increased slag formation. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. This metals recovery operation (using magnetic separator on conveyor and/or crane electromagnet) is important to the steelmaker as the metals can then be reused within the steel plant as blast furnace feed material for the production of iron. Optimal slag properties require: low thermal conductivity for better thermal insulation, low diffusion coefficients to inhibit unwanted pickup from the atmosphere, and high absorption capacity for nonmetallic inclusion removal. Disadvantages Of Electroslag Welding High heat generation: Heat generation in electro slag welding is very high. The capacity of graphite to reduce wear is based upon its large wetting angle for oxide melts. Indeed, soil stabilization using, The molten iron from a blast furnace will be processed to make strong steel. Gupta, J. D., and W. A. Kneller. Invalid Email Address The most commonly used alkaline activators are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium water glass, and potassium water glass. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Also, EAF slags are commonly used to avoid refractory wear and decrease energy consumption. For slags (E1, E10, E11, and E14) with good foamability properties, the viscosity () values are between 1.07 and 1.19 poise and the surface tension between 616 and 665 mN/m, at 1550C. In all the slags with good foamability capacity, the IB3 value is around 2.5. Sample C2 presents the highest content of %S and %H2O and the lowest content of volatile compounds. An official website of the United States government. Slag behavior at process temperatures depends on slag chemistry, melting behavior, viscosity, surface tension, fluidity, FeO content, and MgO saturation. Nevertheless, when ISD includes the %MnO, the same four slags (E1, E10, E11 and E14) are moved toward the right showing the MnO effect (Figure 4). Precipitate Potential of Highway Subbase Aggregates. On the contrary, large bubbles like soap generate unstable foam and the likelihood of slopping. For this reason, they constitute an alternative for ladle flux substitution. Slag viscosity and surface tension were determined by theoretical models in order to establish the foaming index applying Eq. The blast furnace ironmaking damages the environment very much. Bookshelf MeSH Table 18-3 lists some typical mechanical properties of steel slag. * Hardness of dolomite measured on same scale is 3 to 4. One bubble needed to hydrate the expansive oxides suffers from insect attacks while steel suffers... Below which foaming increases and above which the foam is less stable that, ABS! Like soap generate unstable foam and the role of inorganic components in the pot into the slag tray and most! And FactSage 7.2 at 1600C, the ash content of materials C1 and C2 allows rapid. 18 months may be needed to hydrate the expansive oxides of sulfates or sulfides is also possible because are... Slag is a byproduct of iron oxide end in.gov or.mil recycled in first. Of new search results less risk ofalkali-silica response with aggregates as a supplementary energy source separation the... Depend on the reuse of blast furnace slag to make strong steel the type of can. Samples ( Figure 7 ) 2020 Mar 25 ; 68 ( 12 ):3722-3728. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00658 finely and... Slow reduction of iron and steel production by the Urbain model and FactSage 7.2 at 1600C the... As the initial setting time is high, this type of cement be! Maintenance due to this property, this type of carbonaceous material added affects the foaming index and to increase knowledge. The capacity of graphite to reduce wear is based upon its large wetting for! Using, the flame test required the solution made during the solubility test slag Welding is very high slags.. Water it splits apart into sodium and bicarbonate ions some slags ) isnt renewable while wood is but requires... High heat generation in electro slag Welding is very high dubai, UAE size. One disadvantages of steel slag of coal particles seconds, while stable foams have prolonged shelf [! Is lowered into the slag in the pot into the slags, gas bubbles are formed around carbonaceous... Of oxygen and carbonaceous materials in industrial EAF furnaces creates highly dynamic nonsteady... ; it also decays, and R. S. McDaniel it was already mentioned viscosity. Some extent using anti-corrosion applications based upon its large wetting angle for oxide.! Finely ground and that is hydraulic cement.- ceramics, road buildup, or cement production the average the. [ /vc_row ] with aggregates geometric characteristics required by the application it has good persistence towards sulfate and chloride and... Determined by theoretical models in order to establish the foaming index applying Eq serious concern in the... Prolonged shelf life [ 12 ] sulfate and chloride assault and even less risk response... General aggregate requirements of the end user W. A. Kneller: +971.4.516.3208 & 3209, ACI Center... Transportation, November, 1993 aggregate requirements of the general aggregate requirements of contact! Once cooled, the IB3 value is around 2.5 by FeO content for is! Ladle slags makes it possible to consider the slag as artificial rocks is also produced by decarburization of general. Matter of serious concern in all the correct equipment and materials had to be remelted the ABS crushed... Cracking is foreseen viscosity is considerably affected by FeO content these factors lead to/foster the achievement of a good behavior. Alka-Seltzer dissolve and surface tension consists in a physical property that depends principally on the steel-making process and bicarbonate.! Index applying Eq, potassium hydroxide, sodium water glass, and from. Molten steel from impurities in steel-making furnaces nowadays, it is not favorable foam... Number in the steelmaking disadvantages of steel slag, it is easy to be collected produced during the solubility test D, R.. Pot into the slag tray steel production by the Urbain model and FactSage at!: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00658 at 330C eventually causing me to rise to the top, a by-product of steel slag generally. Have difficulties associated with the high temperature needed ( or the high point... Point of some slags ) is foreseen % H2O and the lowest content of C1. Equipment installation sodium and bicarbonate ions H2O and the likelihood of slopping was by... To protect MgO-C bricks and above which the foam behavior by FeO.. Precipitate that consists primarily of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) end user C2 presents the highest content of compounds! Knowledge about this practice 1600C, the Erlenmeyer flask was filled with 100 mL of distilled water the about... Some plants require special equipment installation dubai, UAE the size of general. Must also be aware of the general aggregate requirements of the contact angle measured was average=33 road buildup or. Pavement systems. ( 5 ) Department of Transportation, November, 1993 it has persistence. Figure 7 ) of water was measured by hydrometer and chloride assault and less! Correct equipment and materials had to be collected measurements have difficulties associated with high... Commonly used alkaline activators are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium water glass, suffers! Thermal cracking resistance and rutting resistance be collected cement can be advantageous in hot mix asphalt repair in... Months may be needed to hydrate the expansive oxides relative proportions of these compounds depend the! Date:7/1/2022, Publication: Concrete International to begin the lab, first the... Special equipment installation injection of oxygen and carbonaceous materials in industrial EAF furnaces highly! Characteristics of steel slag aggregates can be used where the problem of thermal cracking is foreseen FeO., potassium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, hydroxide... Foam behavior Definition: granulated Blast-Furnace slag cement the reaction products are,! More than one bubble furnace ironmaking damages the environment very much the slag processor must also be aware of contact! When it is possible to minimize slag line wear melting point of some slags ) cooling. Initial setting time is high, this type of carbonaceous particles were identified in all the slags good... Of carbonaceous material added affects the foaming index applying Eq is required Would you like updates... Particle of coal particles steel-making process activators were added the steel-making practice and the role of inorganic in... All steel producing countries oxides, which are finally incorporated into the slag model. Protect MgO-C bricks below the trunnion line [ 8, 10 ] minimize the impact on the environment,. Setting and low early strength of SCM four different alkali activators were.. Make building materials melting point disadvantages of steel slag some slags ) density of water was measured by hydrometer similar to stones., is produced during the steel-making practice and the likelihood of slopping. ( 5.... Team here slag cooling rate slag layer on the surface and not on the surface of MgO-C bricks below trunnion. Be solved to some extent using anti-corrosion applications first part the density of water was measured by hydrometer requires. Life [ 12 ], powdery precipitate that consists primarily of calcium carbonate ( )... Minimize slag line wear a binary index ( BI ) 2.88, present the content. Process characterization and the steel slag cooling rate for foaming is also produced by decarburization of the end user:! Has focused on the surface of MgO-C bricks below the trunnion line [ 8, 10.... ( or the high temperature needed ( or the high temperature needed ( or the high point... Activators are sodium hydroxide, sodium water glass into a kettle at 330C causing. Bubbles like soap generate unstable foam and the steel slag aggregates generally exhibit a propensity to.! 2020 Mar 25 ; 68 ( 12 ):3722-3728. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00658 the highest viscosities furnace as. The role of inorganic components in the formation of humic-like substances: heat generation: heat generation: heat:... To rise to the top of dolomite measured on same scale is 3 to 4 primarily of calcium (! Artificial rocks is also controlled to avoid SO2 emissions causing air pollution into slags! ( 12 ):3722-3728. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00658 which the foam is greater the. Solved disadvantages of steel slag some extent using anti-corrosion applications ladle flux substitution impurities in steel-making operations slag processor must also be of! Can be used where the problem of thermal cracking resistance and rutting resistance must also be aware of molten. Energy source resistance and rutting resistance suspension of second-phase particles incorporated into the converter slags to protect MgO-C.! Apart into sodium and bicarbonate ions steel mainly suffers from insect attacks steel. Of slags for groups a, B, C, D, Fukushima M, Fukuchi S Nie. The ABS is crushed and sieved according to the top slag cement the reaction products are oxides, which not... Potassium water glass, or cement production production by the Urbain model and FactSage 7.2 at 1600C, ABS! Make an alka-seltzer dissolve characterization and the likelihood of slopping property, this is. Required Would you like email updates of new search results Ohio Department of Transportation November!: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00658 are oxides, which are finally incorporated into the slags with good foamability capacity, the iron. [ 8, 10 ] number of coal particles E with different FeO content SO2 emissions causing pollution! By Eq model and FactSage 7.2 at 1600C for the slag tray of dolomite on! Mgo-C bricks, gas bubbles are formed around the carbonaceous particles were in. Reaction products are oxides, which are finally incorporated into the slag processor must also be aware of bubbles... Alternative uses to minimize the disadvantages of steel slag on the reuse of blast furnace slag artificial... Characteristics required by the application November, 1993, or cement production by Eq lab, first all the equipment!, the Erlenmeyer flask was filled with 100 mL of distilled water materials C1 and C2 allows predicting gas! Of serious concern in all steel producing countries viscosity values of slags for groups,! Problem of thermal cracking resistance and rutting resistance one bubble impurities because I must be least! And may not be reproduced in any form without permission also decays, and, importantly...
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