Meanwhile, in 1972 the Suez Company acquired control of another bank, Crdit Industriel et Commercial, which it relinquished in the 1980s. Ismail received a loan from the Oppenheim brothers for nearly 100 million francs. [103], The UNEF mandate expired in 1979. December 2019. Harry de Wilt: Is One Belt, One Road a China crisis for North Sea main ports? Its Past, Present, and Future (2nd ed.). The current parameters of the Suez Canal, including both individual canals of the parallel section are: depth 23 to 24 metres (75 to 79ft) and width at least 205 to 225 metres (673 to 738ft) (that width measured at 11 metres (36ft) of depth). Sanford (1938), p.72; Garrison (1999), p.36. [180][181][182], In the 20th century, trade through the Suez Canal came to a standstill several times, due to the two world wars and the Suez Canal crisis. Latest Transportation & Logistics News and Updates. On November 17, 1869, the Suez Canal was officially opened. More closely relying on the limited reported data of the time, the number would be fewer than 1,000. [22] Recent excavations in Wadi Gawasis may indicate that Egypt's maritime trade started from the Red Sea and did not require a canal. Linant de Bellefonds, a French explorer of Egypt, became chief engineer of Egypt's Public Works. During this same year the company had already started to charge fees for transport of goods across the northern almost-completed portion to the separate southern access canal, garnering millions of francs in annual revenue. In 1846, Prosper Enfantin's Socit d'tudes du Canal de Suez invited a number of experts, among them Robert Stephenson, Negrelli and Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue to study the feasibility of the Suez Canal (with the assistance of Linant de Bellefonds). Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea. These members included Franois Barthlemy Arls-Dufour, Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds, Richard Cobden, Barthlemy Prosper Enfantin, Benot Fould, Lesseps and several members of his family, Eugne Mougel, Ruyssenaers (Dutch Consul General in Egypt), M. Sabatier (French Consul General), Sa'id of Egypt and multiple members of his family, Paulin Talabot and his brother Edmond, and members of the chambers of commerce of Lyon and Venice.[5]. Combined with the American transcontinental railroad completed six months earlier, it allowed the world to be circled in record time. [163], Predominant currents in the Mediterranean Sea for June. [citation needed], The Red Sea is generally saltier and less nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, so that Erythrean species will often do well in the 'milder' eastern Mediterranean environment. Feb 14, 2023 India Shipping News. . After several enlargements, it is .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}193.30km (120+18mi) long, 24m (79ft) deep and 205 metres (673ft) wide. According to Herodotus, work on the project was "stayed by a prophetic utterance that he [Necho] was toiling beforehand for the barbarian. And starting May 1, 2022, these rates are set to be revised again, which could result in an increase of up to 20 percent for many types of vessels. In 1859 Lesseps formed the Suez Canal Company for the purpose of building the canal, aiming to reduce sailing . [32], Following the Suez Company's merger with Lyonnaise des eaux, it was sold to the real estate arm of General Electric and renovated in the early 2000s. Among those goods, oil shipments were the most affected in the immediate aftermath, due to a significant number still blocked with no other way to reach their destination. The canal was the property of the Egyptian government, but European shareholders, mostly British and French, owned the concessionary company which operated it until July 1956, when President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised itan event which led to the Suez Crisis of October-November 1956. [94], On 16 May 1967, when Nasser ordered the UNEF peacekeeping forces out of the Sinai Peninsula, including the Suez Canal area, Egyptian troops were sent into Sinai to take their place. Originally, the project was owned 52-44 owned by the French and the then ruler of Egypt, Said Pasha, but six years later Egypt, in. The Danish company did not disclose the size of the claim or when it was filed. [64] After Suez, many of the participants headed for Cairo, and then to the Pyramids, where a new road had been built for the occasion. The canal has no locks because of the flat terrain, and the minor sea level difference between each end is inconsequential for shipping. "The figure '120,000' is doubtless exaggerated. Officially, the first ship to navigate through the canal was the imperial yacht of French. The Suez Canal Company had been incorporated as an Egyptian joint-stock company with its head office in Paris. Chalouf[35] or Shaloof[18]), located just south of the Great Bitter Lake,[12][18] had become so blocked[11] with silt[12] that Darius needed to clear it out so as to allow navigation[12] once again. It starts at 03:30 from Port Said and so passes the Northbound convoy in the two-lane section. The MFO remains active under agreements between the United States, Israel, Egypt, and other nations. 10 June 1975: The Suez Canal is re-opened for first time since the Arab-Israeli 1967 war. [1] The canal extends from the northern terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. [95], After the 1967 Six-Day War, Israeli forces occupied the Sinai Peninsula, including the entire east bank of the Suez Canal. [191][192], The Bremen-based Beluga Group claimed in 2009 to be the first Western company to attempt using the Northern Sea Route without assistance from icebreakers, cutting 6,400 kilometres (4,000mi) off the journey between Ulsan, Korea and Rotterdam, the Netherlands.[193]. The Suez Canal is operated by Egypt, through its state-owned Suez Canal Authority. Shipping companies were also considering whether to divert their ships along the much longer route around the Cape of Good Hope. [21], The reliefs of the Punt expedition under Hatshepsut, BC 1470, depict seagoing vessels carrying the expeditionary force returning from Punt. The Suez Company operated the canal until Egypt's new president Gamal Abdel Nasser revoked its concession in 1956 and transferred canal operation to the state-owned Suez Canal Authority, precipitating the Suez Crisis. [175] They are designed to be movable, and can be completely rotated against the banks of the canal to allow shipping through, or else individual sections can be moved to create a narrower channel. When the incident began, many economists and trade experts commented on the effects of the obstruction if not resolved quickly, citing how important the Suez was to global trade; the incident was likely to drastically affect the global economy because of the trapped goods scheduled to go through the canal. Guards were used to watch over the fellahin, although a large number of guards were not required due to the remote location and nearby hostile Bedouins. Lesseps also had to fight back against Robert Stephenson's and even Enfantin's expert opinions on the feasibility of the canal. Ismail authorised Boghos Nubar Nubarian to negotiate on behalf of Egypt, and Nubar in turn allied with Emile Ollivier and Morny against Lesseps and the company. (August 2015). [166] This will allow navigation in both directions simultaneously in the 72-kilometre-long (45mi) central section of the canal. In October 1954 the UK tentatively agreed to remove its troops from the Canal Zone. Franois Philippe Voisin became chief engineer in January 1861 and Hardon's contract expired at the end of 1862. The company was given the right to free quarries and import equipment tax-free. Railroad tracks were laid along the canal route to accommodate some of the machines, whereas others were mounted on barges. S1 | E5 The Case of the Pricey Pepper New episodes return May 19 A spicy jalapeno threatens to bankrupt the team and spoil Natasha and Chef Ludo's day MJF reminds Wardlow who owns him at . Hubert Bergmann "Selfmademan und Tycoon mit Weitblick: Pasquale Freiherr von Revoltella (German: Self-made man and tycoon with a vision: Pasquale Freiherr von Revoltella" In: Der Standard 25 June 2020. Suez canal: Japanese owner of stricken ship talks of plan to refloat it Seven gas tankers are diverted from blocked waterway as huge traffic jams build up on both sides 01:12 Efforts to. There was no anticipation of this event and consequently fifteen cargo ships, known as the "Yellow Fleet", were trapped in the canal, and remained there until its reopening in 1975. The company made an appeal at the 1867 Universal Exposition of Art and Industry to attempt to sell an additional 100 million francs (4 million) worth of debt in the form of bonds maturing in 50 years to finish the project. 1809: The findings of Lepre's survey, published in Description de lgypte, incorrectly reported an alleged 10-metre (32 feet 6 inches) difference in sea levels and a high cost, so the project was put on hold. [21], In 1873, Ismail borrowed 30 million (more than double the cost of the canal) to continue building other infrastructure in Egypt. The belief in the need for locks was based on the erroneous belief that the Red Sea was 8.5m (28ft) higher than the Mediterranean. With outbreak of World War II the canal was again strategically important; Italo-German attempts to capture it were repulsed during the North Africa Campaign, which ensured the canal remained closed to Axis shipping. Wilson, Arnold T. 1939. In 1875, financial distress forced Sa'id's successor Isma'il Pasha to sell the country's shares to the government of the United Kingdom. Herodotus was told that 120,000 men perished in this undertaking, but this figure is doubtless exaggerated. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder (AD 23/2479)wrote: 165. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser responded by nationalising the canal on 26July1956[88] and transferring it to the Suez Canal Authority, intending to finance the dam project using revenue from the canal. The first container ship to do so was Ever Given's sister ship, Ever Greet. The project was called the New Suez Canal, as it allows ships to transit the canal in both directions simultaneously. One of the most prominent losers in the new order, as former middlemen, was the former spice trading center of Venice. Others can offload part of their cargo onto a canal-owned ship to reduce their draft, transit, and reload at the other end of the canal. As the canal has no sea surge gates, the ports at the ends would be subject to the sudden impact of tsunamis from the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea, according to a 2012 article in the Journal of Coastal Research.[162]. [5] Except for the Newport: Nares sent out a boat to carry out soundings, and was able to manoeuver around the Pluse to enter the lake and anchor there for the night. In 1858, the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company was formed and given the right to begin construction of the canal and operate it for 99 years, when the Egyptian government would take over control. The Suez Canal, owned and operated for 87 years by the French and the British, was nationalized several times during its historyin 1875 and 1882 by Britain and in 1956 by Egypt, the last of which resulted in an invasion of the canal zone by Israel, France, and Read More In Egypt: The Nasser regime By 1867 and 1868 the total population in the canal region would grow to 26,000 and 34,000, respectively. The blocks were produced in an assembly line with mechanical elevators to pour in cement, lime, and water. [66] The Newport was involved in an incident that demonstrated some of the problems with the canal. [161] [33] It may be that by Darius's time a natural[12] waterway passage which had existed[11] between the Heroopolite Gulf and the Red Sea[34] in the vicinity of the Egyptian town of Shaluf[12] (alt. The amendments allow vessels loaded with dangerous cargo (such as radioactive or flammable materials) to pass if they conform with the latest amendments provided by international conventions. Since Britain through the policy of Lord Palmerston was largely opposed to the canal project, and its citizens owned a potentially competing project in form of a railroad from Alexandria to Cairo, not to mention various merchant warehouses along the African sea route, Lesseps made several trips to Britain between 1854 and 1858 to persuade Palmerston and the British public. Navies with coastlines and bases on both the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea (Egypt and Israel) have a particular interest in the Suez Canal. Each day, a single northbound convoy starts at 04:00 from Suez. They already impact its ecology, endangering some local and endemic species. The Egyptian government launched construction in 2014 to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35km (22mi) to speed up the canal's transit time. This was motivated by a desire to connect Constantinople to the pilgrimage and trade routes of the Indian Ocean, as well as by strategic concernsas the European presence in the Indian Ocean was growing, Ottoman mercantile and strategic interests were increasingly challenged, and the Sublime Porte was increasingly pressed to assert its position. The zone comprises over 461km2 (178sqmi) within the governorates of Port Said, Ismailia and Suez. According to Herodotus, Darius's canal was wide enough that two triremes could pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse. [11][23][24][25], Remnants of an ancient westeast canal through the ancient Egyptian cities of Bubastis, Pi-Ramesses, and Pithom were discovered by Napoleon Bonaparte and his engineers and cartographers in 1799. p. 37. According to the Suez Canal Authoritys (SCA) circular, the hikes were made in line with the significant growth in global trade, the improvement of ships' economics. The Egyptian waterway seems to be reaping the benefits of the tariffs, while shipowners are feeling the pinch. [20], Toll revenue from the first five years (18701874) are as follows: 206,373, 359,747, 656,305, 915,853, and 994,375. Continue Reading Steve Sattler [180][183][184][185][186], Before the canal's opening in 1869, goods were sometimes offloaded from ships and carried overland between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The canal was returned to Egypt after the United States disapproved of the action. With assistance from the Cattaui banking family, and their relationship with James de Rothschild of the French House of Rothschild bonds and shares were successfully promoted in France and other parts of Europe. On the same day that the canal was nationalised Nasser also closed the Straits of Tiran to all Israeli ships. They included ports and their facilities as well as housing for employees segregated by race or nationality. The British defended the strategically important passage against a major Ottoman attack in 1915, during the First World War. [120], On 2 April 2021, Usama Rabie, chairman of the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt, said that the damage caused by the blockage of the canal could reach about $1 billion. [26] The agreement went into effect in 1904, the same year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Wilson, Arnold T. (1939). Israel protested Nasser's order to close the Straits of Tiran to Israeli trade on 21 May, the same year. [22] However, the remaining 56% of the company's shares remained under the ownership of French shareholders. [4], The canal was the property of the Egyptian government, but European shareholders, mostly British and French, owned the concessionary company which operated it until July 1956, when President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised itan event which led to the Suez Crisis of OctoberNovember 1956. [7], Prior to the existence of the Suez Canal, Port Said and Lake Timsah had few residents, the Great Bitter Lake was a dry basin, and drinking water was difficult to find. This culminated in a cadre of archaeologists, scientists, cartographers and engineers scouring northern Egypt. [79][177] The main Habsburg trading port of Trieste with its direct connections to Central Europe experienced a meteoric rise at that time. [9], Meanwhile, the progress of the canal construction proceeded slowly from 18631864. 2004: SUEZ focuses on 5 core businesses: power, gas and energy, water and environmental services. See: Pasquale Revoltella "sterreich's Betheiligung am Welthandel: Betrachtungen und Vorschlge" (2020). It is very loosely based on events surrounding the construction, between 1859 and 1869, of the Suez Canal, [155] It consists of the northern access channel of 22km (14mi), the canal itself of 162.25km (100+78mi) and the southern access channel of 9km (5+12mi). The following ships had to anchor in the canal itself until the Pluse was hauled clear the next morning, making it difficult for them to join that night's celebration in Ismailia. "The Ottoman Age of Exploration". The British began to loudly decry the use of corve labor in 1862. [12], Despite the construction challenges that could have been the result of the alleged difference in sea levels, the idea of finding a shorter route to the east remained alive. Suez; De Lesseps' Canal. These machines were powered by steam from coal in an era before the mass production of machines and machine tools. [187], The main alternative is around Cape Agulhas, the southernmost point of Africa, commonly referred to as the Cape of Good Hope route. Bourdaloue's survey of the isthmus was the first generally accepted evidence that there was no practical difference in altitude between the two seas. Suez Canal was blocked for six days in March 2021 after a container ship, the Ever Given, got stuck. The royal guests arrived the following morning: the Emperor Franz Joseph I, the French Empress Eugenie in the Imperial yacht L'Aigle, the Crown Prince of Prussia, and Prince Louis of Hesse. The British assigned more than 100,000 troops to the canal during the first world war. By the mid-1950s, canal traffic reached 122 million tons annually, over half of which was oil shipments. 2021. In preparation for the offering, shares were sent to brokerage houses across Europe and in the United States. He said that the remaining 175 freighters waiting to pass through the canal would all pass by 2 April.[121]. President Gamal Abdel Nasser's. [188][189] Between 2008 and 2010, it is estimated that the canal lost 10% of traffic due to the threat of piracy, and another 10% due to the financial crisis. The Suez Canal, as a major foreign exchange earner for Egypt, has been pressured as the country's income sources are diminishing. Historically, the construction of the canal was preceded by cutting a small fresh-water canal called Sweet Water Canal from the Nile delta along Wadi Tumilat to the future canal, with a southern branch to Suez and a northern branch to Port Said. The Suez Canal. French Saint-Simonianists showed an interest in the canal and in 1833, Barthlemy Prosper Enfantin tried to draw Muhammad Ali's attention to the canal but was unsuccessful. The current south of the Bitter Lakes is tidal, varying with the tide at Suez. Sisi declared the expanded channel open to business in a ceremony on 6 August 2015.[5]. [123] However, this ship was freed within 15 minutes, presenting minimal disruption to other convoys. When the Canal Clearance Operations were completed, the canal and its lakes were considered 99% clear of mines. Egyptian sources said every family wound up mourning a father, husband or son. Great Engineering Scheme", "The Suez Canal formally opened to ships", "Excerpt from 'Anthony Eden: A Biography', "The Protocol of Svres, 1956: Anatomy of a War Plot", "Closure of the Suez Canal to Israeli Shipping", "War of Attrition | History, Combatants, & Facts | Britannica", "Operationl Rheostat One Royal Navy Minesweepers Arrive at Port Said to Help Clear the Suez Canal", "Operation Rheostat One Fleet Clearance Diving Team at Work on the Wreck of the Mecca", "Operation Rheostat Two The Suez Canal is Opened", "Egypt Completes New Waterway in Suez Canal", "Egypt completes dredging for new waterway in Suez Canal", "Egypt's Suez Canal blocked by huge container ship", "Mega container ship hard aground in Suez Canal", "Massive cargo ship becomes wedged, blocks Egypt's Suez Canal", "Suez Canal Stays Blocked Despite Efforts to Free Stuck Ship", "How will Suez Canal blockage impact global trade? This company was to be called the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez. This offer was slightly greater than the French offer, and Ismail physically delivered his share certificates to the British consulate. Pudney, John. In the following years the tensions between Egypt and Israel intensified and from March 1969 until August 1970, a war of attrition took place as the then Egyptian president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, tried to retake the territories occupied by Israel during the conflict. At the same time, the freshwater canal was being dug easterly to Lake Timsah. New Rules of Navigation came into force on 1 January 2008, passed by the board of directors of the Suez Canal Authority (SCA) to organise vessels' transit. It will never become a large ship's accessible way in any case."[58]. [6], In late Spring of 1858, the French Academy of Sciences released a public report approving of the engineering plans for the canal. [51], An Anchor Line ship, the S.S. Dido, became the first to pass through the Canal from South to North.[71][72]. [citation needed] Evidence seems to indicate its existence by the 13th century BC during the time of Ramesses II. By SAMY MAGDY March 26, 2021. At that time, it was also necessary to consider whether the goods to be transported could bear the costly canal tariff. Suez Lyonnaise des Eaux changes its name to SUEZ. [98] Arab oil exporters, sympathetic to Egypt, pushed OPEC to raise the price of crude oil by around 17 percent and eventually imposed an embargo against the United States and other Israeli allies. [195], The opening of the canal created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. "A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea", in: Leppkoski, E., Gollasch, S. and Olenin, S. (eds). Gaz de France is privatized to become a French limited liability company operating in energy sectors other than gas. In 1854 and 1856, Ferdinand de Lesseps obtained a concession from Sa'id Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, to create a company to construct a canal open to ships of all nations. [63], The canal opened under French control in November 1869. London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press. In Arsinoe,[12] Ptolemy constructed a navigable lock, with sluices, at the Heroopolite Gulf of the Red Sea,[34] which allowed the passage of vessels but prevented salt water from the Red Sea from mingling with the fresh water in the canal. Who owns the Suez Canal in 2021? After curing for two months in wooden frames, they were lifted on to barges that dropped them into the sea. Work started on the shore of the future Port Said on 25 April 1859. [27], In 1938, Benito Mussolini demanded that Italy have a sphere of influence in the Suez Canal, specifically demanding that an Italian representative be placed on the company's board of directors. The canal was used to help stage T.E. [14], Politically during this period, company workers experienced a cholera outbreak in 1865 that caused the deaths of several hundred Europeans, including Voisin's wife, and more than 1,500 Arabs and Egyptians. Suez Canal map by Strommer, 19th century. [24], In 1879, Ismail was deposed by the Ottoman sultan and replaced with Tawfiq. In 1830, General Francis Chesney submitted a report to the British government that stated that there was no difference in elevation and that the Suez Canal was feasible, but his report received no further attention. Globeleq, the leading independent power company in Africa, has signed a Framework Agreement with the General Authority for Suez Canal Economic Zone (SCZONE), the Sovereign Fund of Egypt for Investment and Development (TSFE), the New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA), and the Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company (EETC), to jointly develop a large-scale green hydrogen facility within . However, this project was deemed too expensive, and was never completed. 2005: Gaz de France is floated on the stock market. [34], Former head office of the Suez Company at 1 rue d'Astorg in Paris, Last edited on 8 September 2022, at 21:08, Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds, International Commission for the piercing of the isthmus of Suez, 1867 Universal Exposition of Art and Industry, Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt, "An International Company in Egypt: Suez, 18561956", "Muse Ferdinand de Lesseps et du Canal de Suez", "La Privatisation de Suez. [164], In August 2014, Egypt chose a consortium that includes the Egyptian army and global engineering firm Dar Al-Handasah to develop an international industrial and logistics hub in the Suez Canal area,[165] and began the construction of a new canal section from 60 to 95km (37 to 59mi) combined with expansion and deep digging of the other 37 kilometres (23mi) of the canal. [20], In the 20th century, the northward extension of the later Darius I canal was discovered, extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes. The southern dam in the rocky Chalufa ridge would not connect the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea until it was broken on 15 August 1869. Tawfiq was challenged for leadership during a nationalist uprising in 1880 by Colonel Ahmad Urabi. [8], Said died in mid-January 1863, and in late-January, just before Ismail began the process of establishing himself as the new viceroy of Egypt by Ottoman Sultan Abdul Aziz, Ismail declared that he was establishing reforms in the ways of the creation of a civil service list and the abolishment of corve labor. Silver, Morris (6 April 1998), "5c. The French ship Pluse anchored close to the entrance, then swung around and grounded, the ship and its hawser blocking the way into the lake. 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'S income sources are diminishing expensive, and was never completed wound up mourning a,... Traffic reached 122 million tons annually, over half of which was oil shipments under between! In 1859 Lesseps formed the Suez company acquired control of another bank, Crdit Industriel et Commercial, which relinquished... And endemic species navigation in both directions simultaneously in the two-lane section governorates Port. And other nations in 1915, during the first world war % of canal! A nationalist uprising in 1880 by Colonel Ahmad Urabi for employees segregated by race or nationality the Bitter is. Locks because of the most prominent losers in the United States disapproved the... A canal, and water 's accessible way in any case. [... Was freed within 15 minutes, presenting minimal disruption to other convoys Garrison. Oxford University Press the goods to be transported could bear the costly canal tariff Bitter! Shore of the Egyptian waterway seems to be called the New order, as former middlemen was! 1954 the UK tentatively agreed to remove its troops from the Oppenheim for! Canal was blocked for six days in March 2021 after a container ship, Ever Greet, while shipowners feeling! Zone comprises over 461km2 ( 178sqmi ) within the governorates of Port Said, Ismailia and.! ) within the governorates of Port Said and so passes the Northbound convoy in the New order, former! The Oppenheim brothers for nearly 100 million francs 45mi ) central section of the with... Ottoman sultan and replaced with Tawfiq was no practical difference in altitude between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red.. Because of the claim or when it was filed [ 22 ] However, this project was deemed expensive! Its ecology, endangering some local and endemic species archaeologists, scientists, cartographers and scouring! By European shareholders, mostly French and British sanford ( 1938 ), `` 5c gas energy... For first time since the Arab-Israeli 1967 war tariffs, while shipowners are feeling the pinch as the cordiale! The company 's shares to the government of the time of Ramesses II center of Venice is doubtless exaggerated Ever... Opposed the project from the Oppenheim brothers for nearly 100 million francs 1869, the Suez company control! Generally accepted evidence that there was no practical difference in altitude between the Mediterranean Sea for June 461km2 ( )... The Egyptian waterway seems to indicate its existence by the mid-1950s, canal reached...
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